Beyond Communication: Why You Should Look into Dialects and Constructed Languages
During a World of Language Structure and Biological Aspects course I took, topics in creole, sign language, and the origins of languages all share a connection related to our real and imagined worlds. These topics are also relevant to the debates surrounding dialects and constructed languages recognized as full-fledged languages. Including their unique close association to cultural identity influencing the languages. In order to prove the legitimacy of a language, it’s important to visit the origins, identities, and values of the speakers. After all, language can only be useful when there are multiple speakers. Its source of identification all comes down to the cultural identities of the people. Beyond communication, language is a major representation of who people are, where they come from, and what they value, the same goes for languages spoken by fictional characters. When speaking to someone for the first time who speaks a different language, trying to figure out their cultural affiliation is an immediate response. Similar to watching a film or reading a book that takes place in a unique setting, writers will create a cultural identity that includes language to help audiences feel connected. By exploring language and culture of Gullah Creole by Gullah-Geechee people from the coastal Southern United States, Black Sign language (BASL) by African American Deaf/Hard of Hearing, fictional world conlangs such Na’vi from James Cameron’s Avatar and real-world conlang Esperanto created by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof, we will discover how the relationship between cultural identity in dialectal languages and constructed languages are explored in a real and imagined world.
When Africans were kidnapped and sold into transatlantic slavery, they were forced to begin new lives and rebuild new identities in parts of Asia, North America, South America, and the Caribbean islands. Slaves were split from their prior ethnic groups, tribes, and families. In order to cope and survive these traumatic separations, they mixed and combined their past traditions to form new ones. This syncretism included religion, custom, food, music, and most significantly; language. A prime example of this comes from the Gullah people of coastal Southern America. According to Matory, “The Gullah/Geechee people descend from the enslaved Africans who built and sustained the rice plantations of the marshy coastlands and inland estuaries between the Cape Fear River in North Carolina and the St. John’s River near Jacksonville, Florida. Though these islands are generally represented as the heartland of the Gullah/Geechees’ distinctive culture, the Gullah/Geechee people represent the African-American population in the thirty-mile wide coastal strip of the mainland from southern North Carolina to northern Georgia” (952). Their isolation away from mainland America creates a unique culture and dialect incorporating west African ethnic groups and languages such as Wolof, Mandinka, Fulani, Twi, Ibo, Hausa, Yoruba, etc mixed with the Master’s English, developed into Gullah Creole language (HomeTeam History, 05:34). The Gullah/Geechee people were also more aligned with parts of their African culture. For example, the Gullah people used African-style baskets identical to original artifacts found from western Africa (HomeTeam History), whenever a slave completed their assigned task they chose to help others complete their work or practice African cultural activities instead of European activities (Matory, 956). This derives from the African communal style of living. These cultural reminders are in the Gullah Creole language as well. Although the Gullah language is an English-derived lexicon, it is difficult for most English-speaking Americans to understand. Scholars recognize the Gullah language is made up of West African phonetics, vocabulary, grammar, naming practices, and narrative form (Matory, 954). The language is orally passed down due to the forced illiteracy of African slaves while still maintaining many of its African influences compared to other dialects in the U.S. This shares practices to African spiritual traditions, which were primarily passed down orally and were able to survive in the Americas. Similar to the Gullah language’s roots and survival despite migration to the mainland decades later. Words such as “tote” is a Gullah word meaning: to carry something”, “kumbaya” is a Gullah phrase meaning “come by here” (Sunn M’Cheaux, 01:10). Both words are popularly used in the U.S. The word “there” in Gullah is “deh”. This is influenced by African languages because most do not have a “th” sound in their phonology. According to Harvard University Gullah language professor Sunn M’Cheaux, verb tenses are not necessary for the Gullah language. Regardless of the past, present, or future, the infinitive form of a verb does not get modified. This is because Gullah is spoken in a structure common to other West African languages. In English, the question “Who showed him?”, a possible response is “I showed him.” with the English verb conjugation with “ed” for the past tense. In Gullah creole, the response to that same question would be “Ai shuo’m” pronounced as “I show em”. It can also be said as “Ai ad shuo’m”, with “ad” indicating the past. In both responses, the verb is left alone. The merging of different African languages is what makes Gullah people a unique cultural identity. They value their ancestors, traditions, and shared community. This proves that it’s more than just a dialect, it’s a representation of people preserving who they were with language.
The origins of Black American sign language (BASL) have a similar history rooted in isolation. American sign language (ASL) derived from french sign language. Created by Laurent Clerc and Thomas Gallaudet, they would go on to open the first American school for the deaf in 1817 (Smith and Gentry, 561). There, ASL would only be taught to white students. Black students would not be admitted until a century later in the 1950s. ASL consists of its own syntax (represented by a sequence of signs), semantics (choice of signs), pragmatics (intensity of sign, body position), phonology (handshape, movement, location, palm orientation), and morphology (Smith and Gentry, 562). As white teachers were developing this, black deaf/hard of hearing communities developed their own. Segregation would then cause differences between BASL and ASL when they interacted centuries later. Black deaf/hard of hearing signers have their own vocabulary, phonology, semantics, pragmatics, and syntax. BASL is also rooted in African American culture and is most recognized by its vocabulary. There are signs dedicated to African American Vernacular English (AAVE). The ASL sign for “I’m sorry” is described by rubbing a closed fist over the heart. In BASL, it is signed by tapping the back of a closed fist over the heart. This can also be interpreted as “my bad” in AAVE (aclib.us). BASL is described to be very expressive and uses large signing space. A trait that’s closely related to African American culture. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association describes black culture as high context and high verbal (Smith and Gentry, 562). Black culture shows itself in the language. The expressive, motion-filled language of BASL relates to the passion-filled, creative identities of Black Americans. Isolation and inequality have been forced upon African Americans for centuries, yet they possess the will and triumph to create something out of nothing. This is deeply admirable, this is what sets their culture apart.
Oftentimes when discussing topics related to culture, language, and identity, the focus is solely directed towards our real world. Our real-world is obviously important, it’s what we are experiencing, have experienced, and what we will experience. Art also bears the same importance. Artists such as authors and film directors incorporate what has happened in our real world into fictional worlds. They draw inspiration from past and current cultures to develop a new that takes place in a familiar world. Constructed languages are a separate evolving chain in linguistics. Language creators take lingual rules pertaining to structure and apply them to constructed languages of their own. Language creators are artists themselves. The relationship between cultural identity and language is present in James Cameron’s 2009 film “Avatar” which depicts the Na’vi people’s fictional language and culture. “Avatar” is a film that takes place far in the future when humans possess highly advanced technology. The humans’ unlikely future on earth is dependent on Pandora’s resources. The Na’vi are tall, blue alien-like people who are native to Pandora. Their home is threatened by the human’s mission to steal their resources. To accomplish the mission, some humans are chosen to take the form of a Na’vi avatar to infiltrate Pandora. Humans in the Na’vi avatar can then build trust with the native Na’vi to eventually lead the humans to the resource. The themes of “Avatar” revolve around nature, extinction, exploitation, and morality. The Na’vi people’s cultural values and treatment are similar to the past and present treatment of Indigenous people in our real world. The Na’vi value the natural order of life, sacred life in all forms, community, spirituality, and their ecosystem. James Cameron goes on to work with linguist Dr. Paul Frommer to create a language with phonology, morphology, and syntax aligned with their cultural values (Hunt). To greet each other, the Na’vi say “Kaltxi, oel ngati kameie”. This translates to “Hello, I see you”. Using “I see you” as an immediate statement of introduction sums up the emotional depth this society has. Through a greeting with so much empathy. According to Erb, “I see you” indicates an understanding of the other’s inner life” (9). The Na’vi view each other as one and the same. They are an extension of different forms of life, they are equal to animals, plants, and spirits. They don’t see each other as superior. Na’vi people believe in the word “Eywa”. Which can be interpreted as “a network of energy” (Erb, 9). They believe Eywa to be their version of God. The guardian spirit of their lands that keep all living things connected. The Na’vi language and cultural values are representative of tradition and non-urbanization. They didn’t have an original word for “gunship” and “book” until the humans came into contact with them. (The Disney Blog, 01:04). Gunships and books simply did not exist for them therefore they couldn’t exist in the language. Na’vi is not a written language so they had to borrow English words from the humans who brought gunships and books. The borrowing of languages is a phenomenon that occurs in our real world. Dr. Paul Frommer explains that when humans introduced books, by using the Na’vi phonology system, “book” became “pook” in Na’vi. Since there is no “b” sound in the Na’vi language. The Na’vi people’s spirituality and inexperience with technology are reflected in their language. Their appearance sets them apart from the humans, but their cultural values are most important to their identity. It is obvious that the indigenous people of our world influenced Cameron’s creation of the Na’vi people. Much can be learned from how realistic the structure of their language is and the possibilities of conlangs.
Constructed languages have multiple purposes outside of fictional use. Conlangs in our real world can bring people together. Language has shown to be influenced by culture. Separation of borders, ethnicities, political affairs, and economic value get in the way of mutual understanding. A language soon derived with the purpose of building an easy learning bridge of communication and understanding despite what country anyone came from. Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof created Esperanto in the 19th century. He was a practicing doctor who always had a passion for languages. He was a polyglot who studied German, English, Spanish, Lithuanian, Italian, and French (Delvin). Which would later go on to influence the creation of Esperanto. Zamenhof was a Polish jew and became deeply aware of the antisemitism growing around him. He imagined a world where people would accept peace and understanding. Free from hate and lean into learning from one another. Zamenhof wanted to use the skill he was best at to contribute to a better world. He did so by constructing Esperanto. A language that anyone could easily learn to read, speak and write while preserving their native language. Esperanto has Latin roots and out of context sounds similar to Italian and Spanish. The word for “book” in Esperanto is “libro”, the same in Spanish. David Adler explains that “Zamenhof created Esperanto such that all words are formed and conjugated the same way without any irregularities. For example, the verb “paroli” which in its infinitive form means “to speak” is conjugated in the present, past and future tenses as “parolas” (speak), “parolis” (spoke) and “parolos” (will speak) respectively.” (Adler). In English, to make a compound word, you use two separate words that can combine to make a new word. This occurs in Esperanto too. The compound word “watchdog” in Esperanto is “gardhundo”. By using the words “gardi” which means “to keep watch” and the word “hundo” which is “dog”, by following the compound rules, creates a new Esperanto word. (Adler). Esperanto culture is not a single culture based in one country or society. There are multiple cultural identities that make Esperanto. A single value they share is community. Speakers from different countries created books, music, and annual conventions to keep the language alive.
What makes Gullah Creole, BASL, Na’vi, and Esperanto unique is the community that represents them. Dialects and constructed languages aren’t held to the same standard as other languages. They have often been pushed aside. The only way to gain an appreciation for them is by acknowledging their cultural backgrounds. All speakers of these languages use it as part of their identity. The Gullah people created a language that symbolizes their connection to their African ancestors. After moving to the U.S mainland, they are shunned for their language but they still continue to preserve it. With the help of prestigious institutions such as Harvard that have added Gullah Creole as part of their African language curriculum. Black American Sign Language has more recently gained attention. It represents how African Americans have managed to combine African American culture as a form of communication and expression despite lack of support. Na’vi culture is based on vulnerable communities in our real world. Although the language is created for fiction, fans online have committed to learning more Na’vi language and speaking it as a community. Creator of Na’vi language Dr. Paul Frommer has discussed receiving emails written entirely in Na’vi, adding to his motivation to expand on the language. Esperanto currently has over two million speakers worldwide, some even using it as a native tongue for their children. A community across various cultures accomplished the intentions of Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof. “Unconventional” languages are indeed languages as long as they have culture and community backing them.
Works Cited
Aclib. “Black American Sign Language.” Alachua County Library District, 2020, www.aclib.us/waldo/blog/black-american-sign-language.
Adler, Daniel. “Creating New Words in Esperanto: Unravel Magazine.” Unravel, 21 Apr. 2017, unravellingmag.com/articles/creating-new-words-in-esperanto/.
Delvin, Thomas Moore. “What Is Esperanto, And Who Speaks It?” Babbel Magazine, 25 Apr. 2019, www.babbel.com/en/magazine/how-many-people-speak-esperanto-and-where-is-it-spoken.
Erb, Cynthia. “A Spiritual Blockbuster: Avatar, Environmentalism, and the New Religions.” Journal of Film and Video, vol. 66, no. 3, 2014, pp. 3–17., doi:10.5406/jfilmvideo.66.3.0003.
HomeTeam History, director. A History Of The Gullah People. YouTube, YouTube, 5 Feb. 2020, www.youtube.com/watch?v=swboihBGqZw.
Hunt, Lucas Anthony. “7 Most Complete Fictional Languages From Pop Culture.” THE ROCKLE, 4 Apr. 2021, therockle.com/fictional-languages-pop-culture/.
Matory, J. Lorand. “The Illusion of Isolation: The Gullah/Geechees and the Political Economy of African Culture in the Americas.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 50, no. 4, 2008, pp. 949–980., doi:10.1017/s0010417508000406.
M’ Cheaux, Sunn, director. AJ+ ‘Harvard Instructor Saving Gullah Creole’. YouTube, YouTube, 28 Feb. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=xLwrNf0Cymo&t=9s.
M’ Cheaux, Sunn, director. Gullah @ Harvard: Gullah Phonology — Pt 1. YouTube, YouTube, 30 Apr. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=ilOZJWKsSWs.
Thedisneyblog, director. How to Speak the Na’vi Language of Avatar from Its Inventor Dr. Paul Frommer. YouTube, YouTube, 12 Nov. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=28aTWDeioZY.
Toliver-Smith, Andrea, and Betholyn Gentry. “Investigating Black ASL: A Systematic Review.” American Annals of the Deaf, vol. 161, no. 5, 2017, pp. 560–570., doi:10.1353/aad.2017.0006.
Zijlstra, Maria, and Paul \ Frommer. Extraterrestrial Na’vi, ABC, 2010, www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/archived/linguafranca/extraterrestrial-navi/3101004#transcript.
